WOMEN IN ISLAM

    1. The Spiritual Aspect
    2. The Social Aspect
        (a) As a Child and Adolescent
        (b) As a Wife
        (c) As a Mother
    3. The Economic Aspect
    4. The political Aspect

CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 

Family, society and ultimately the whole of mankind is treated by Islam on an ethical basis.
Differentiation in sex is neither a credit nor a drawback for the sexes. Therefore, when we
talk about status of woman in Islam it should not lead us to think that Islam has no specific
guidelines, limitations, responsibilities and obligations for men. What makes one valuable and
respectable in the eyes of Allah, the Creator of mankind and the universe, is neither one's
prosperity, position, intelligence, physical strength nor beauty, but only one's Allah-consciousness and awareness (taqwa). However, since in the Western culture and in
cultures influenced by it, there exists a disparity between men and women there is more need
for stating Islam's position on important issues in a clear way.

Dr. Jamal Badawi's essay, The Status of Women in Islam, was originally published in our
quarterly journal, Al-lttihad, Vol. 8, No. 2, Sha'ban 1391/Sept 1971. Since then it has been
one of our most-demanded publications. We thank Br. Jamal for permitting us to reprint his
essay. We hope it will clarify many of the misconceptions.

Anis Ahmad,
Director Dept. of Education and Training
MSA of U.S. and Canada
P.O. Box 38 Plainfield, IN 46168 USA

Jumada al Thani 1400 April 1980
 

I. INTRODUCTION

The status of women in society is neither a new issue nor is it a fully settled one.

The position of Islam on this issue has been among the subjects presented to the Western
reader with the least objectivity.

This paper is intended to provide a brief and authentic exposition of what Islam stands for in
this regard. The teachings of Islam are based essentially on the Qur'an (God's revelation) and
Hadeeth (elaboration by Prophet Muhammad).

The Qur'an and the Hadeeth, properly and unbiasedly understood, provide the basic source of
authentication for any position or view which is attributed to Islam.

The paper starts with a brief survey of the status of women in the pre-Islamic era. It then
focuses on these major questions: What is the position of Islam regarding the status of woman
in society? How similar or different is that position from "the spirit of the time," which was
dominant when Islam was revealed? How would this compare with the "rights" which were
finally gained by woman in recent decades?
 
 

II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

One major objective of this paper is to provide a fair evaluation of what Islam contributed (or
failed to contribute) toward the restoration of woman's dignity and rights. In order to achieve
this objective, it may be useful to review briefly how women were treated in general in
previous civilizations and religions, especially those which preceded Islam (Pre-610 C.E.).
Part of the information provided here, however, describes the status of woman as late as the
nineteenth century, more than twelve centuries after Islam.
 

Women in Ancient Civilization

Describing the status of the Indian woman, Encyclopedia Britannica states:

    In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by
    their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was
    agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.

In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: "a woman whose mind,
speech and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next,
the same abode with her husband."

In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women.

"Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male - to their father, to their brother,
or to some of their male kin.

Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and "she was obliged to
submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even
though he were stranger to her."

A Roman wife was described by an historian as: "a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable
of doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under
the tutelage and guardianship of her husband."

In the Encyclopedia Britannica, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman
civilization:

    In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If
    married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was
    the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his
    benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . could not be a
    witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or
    contract. Among the Scandinavian races women were:

    under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of
    Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married
    without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and
    usufruct of her goods during her life.

    According to the English Common Law:

    ...all real property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession
    of her husband. He was entitled to the rent from the land and to any profit which
    might be made from operating the estate during the joint life of the spouses. As time
    passed, the English courts devised means to forbid a husband's transferring real
    property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it
    and to receive the money which it produced. As to a wife's personal property, the
    husband's power was complete. He had the right to spend it as he saw fit.

Only by the late nineteenth Century did the situation start to improve. "By a series of acts
starting with the Married women's Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married
women achieved the right to own property and to enter contracts on a par with spinsters,
widows, and divorcees." As late as the Nineteenth Century an authority in ancient law, Sir
Henry Maine, wrote: "No society which preserves any tincture of Christian institutions is
likely to restore to married women the personal liberty conferred on them by the Middle
Roman Law."

In his essay The Subjection of Women, John Stuart Mill wrote:

    We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the
    woman her just rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband;
    no less so, as far as the legal obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called.

Before moving on to the Qur'anic decrees concerning the status of woman, a few Biblical
decrees may shed more light on the subject, thus providing a better basis for an impartial
evaluation. In the Mosaic Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the
Encyclopedia Biblica states: "To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession
of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money
has been paid." From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the
validation of her marriage. "The girl's consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere
suggested in the Law."

As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: "The woman being man's
property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course." The right to divorce was held
only by man. "In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only .... "

The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by
both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary
cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote:

    Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting
    judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading
    references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the
    famous historian, speaks of (these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and
    so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as
    the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very
    thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the
    curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is
    the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is
    the most potent instrument of the devil). One of the most scathing of these attacks on
    woman is that of Tertullian: Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of
    God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You
    are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first
    deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not
    valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of
    your desert - that is death - even the Sop of God had to die). Not only did the church
    affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had
    previously enjoyed.
 

In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide
desert of Arabia with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity: "O Mankind, keep
your duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate (of
same kind) and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and women" (Qur'an 4: 1).

A scholar who pondered about this verse states: "It is believed that there is no text, old or
new, that deals with the humanity of the woman from all aspects with such amazing brevity,
eloquence, depth, and originality as this divine decree."

Stressing this noble and natural conception, them Qur'an states:

    He (God) it is who did create you from a single soul and therefrom did create his
    mate, that he might dwell with her (in love)...(Qur'an 7:189)

    The Creator of heavens and earth: He has made for you pairs from among
    yourselves ...Qur'an 42:1 1

    And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you from your
    mates, children and grandchildren, and has made provision of good things for you.
    Is it then in vanity that they believe and in the grace of God that they disbelieve?
    Qur'an 16:72

The rest of this paper outlines the position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society
from its various aspects - spiritually, socially, economically and politically.
 

1. The Spiritual Aspect

The Qur'an provides clear-cut evidence that woman iscompletely equated with man in the
sight of God interms of her rights and responsibilities. The Qur'an states:

    "Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds" (Qur'an 74:38). It also states:

    ...So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): I will not suffer to be lost the work
    of any of you whether male or female. You proceed one from another ...(Qur'an 3:
    195).

    Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, verily to him will We
    give a new life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward
    according to the their actions. (Qur'an 16:97, see also 4:124).

Woman according to the Qur'an is not blamed for Adam's first mistake. Both were jointly
wrong in their disobedience to God, both repented, and both were forgiven. (Qur'an 2:36,
7:20 - 24). In one verse in fact (20:121), Adam specifically, was blamed.

In terms of religious obligations, such as the Daily Prayers, Fasting, Poor-due, and
Pilgrimage, woman is no different from man. In some cases indeed, woman has certain
advantages over man. For example, the woman is exempted from the daily prayers and from
fasting during her menstrual periods and forty days after childbirth. She is also exempted from
fasting during her pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby if there is any threat to her
health or her baby's. If the missed fasting is obligatory (during the month of Ramadan), she can
make up for the missed days whenever she can. She does not have to make up for the prayers
missed for any of the above reasons. Although women can and did go into the mosque during
the days of the prophet and thereafter attendance et the Friday congregational prayers is
optional for them while it is mandatory for men (on Friday).

This is clearly a tender touch of the Islamic teachings for they are considerate of the fact that a
woman may be nursing her baby or caring for him, and thus may be unable to go out to the
mosque at the time of the prayers. They also take into account the physiological and
psychological changes associated with her natural female functions.
 

a) As a child and an adolescent

Despite the social acceptance of female infanticide among some Arabian tribes, the Qur'an
forbade this custom, and considered it a crime like any other murder.

    "And when the female (infant) buried alive - is questioned, for what crime she was
    killed." (Qur'an 81:8-9).

Criticizing the attitudes of such parents who reject their female children, the Qur'an states:

    When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female (child), his face
    darkens and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from
    his people because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain her on (sufferance)
    and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah! What an evil (choice) they decide on?
    (Qur'an 16: 58-59).

Far from saving the girl's life so that she may later suffer injustice and inequality, Islam
requires kind and just treatment for her. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this
regard are the following:

    Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and
    does not favor his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. (Ibn Hanbal, No.
    1957).

    Whosoever supports two daughters till they mature, he and I will come in the day of
    judgment as this (and he pointed with his two fingers held together).

A similar Hadeeth deals in like manner with one who supports two sisters. (Ibn-Hanbal, No.
2104).

The right of females to seek knowledge is not different from that of males. Prophet Muhammad
(P.) said:

    "Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim". (AlBayhaqi). Muslim as used
    here including both males and females.

The Qur'an clearly indicates that marriage is sharing between the two halves of the society,
and that its objectives, beside perpetuating human life, are emotional well-being and spiritual
harmony. Its bases are love and mercy.

Among the most impressive verses in the Qur'an about marriage is the following.

    "And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that
    you may find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and
    mercy. Lo, herein indeed are signs for people who reflect." (Qur'an 30:2 1).

According to Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.

Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (P.), and she
reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God
gave her the choice . . . (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn Hanbal No.
2469). In another version, the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let
women know that parents have no right (to force a husband on them)" (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).

Besides all other provisions for her protection at the time of marriage, it was specifically
decreed that woman has the full right to her Mahr, a marriage gift, which is presented to her
by her husband and is included in the nuptial contract, and that such ownership does not
transfer to her father or husband. The concept of Mahr in Islam is neither an actual or
symbolic price for the woman, as was the case in certain cultures, but rather it is a gift
symbolizing love and affection.

The rules for married life in Islam are clear and in harmony with upright human nature. In
consideration of the physiological and psychological make-up of man and woman, both have
equal rights and claims on one another, except for one responsibility, that of leadership. This
is a matter which is natural in any collective life and which is consistent with the nature of
man.

The Qur'an thus states:

    "And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them, and men are a
    degree above them." (Qur'an 2:228).

Such degree is Quiwama (maintenance and protection). This refers to that natural difference
between the sexes which entitles the weaker sex to protection. It implies no superiority or
advantage before the law. Yet, man's role of leadership in relation to his family does not mean
the husband's dictatorship over his wife. Islam emphasizes the importance of taking counsel
and mutual agreement in family decisions. The Qur'an gives us an example:

    "...If they (husband wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and (after)
    consultation, there is no blame on them..." (Qur'an 2: 233).

Over and above her basic rights as a wife comes the right which is emphasized by the Qur'an
and is strongly recommended by the Prophet (P); kind treatment and companionship.

The Qur'an states:

    "...But consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you
    hate a thing wherein God has placed much good." (Qur'an 4: l9).
 

    Prophet Muhammad. (P) said:

    The best of you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family.

    The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and best of you are those who are
    best to their wives. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 7396)

    Behold, many women came to Muhammad's wives complaining against their
    husbands (because they beat them) - - those (husbands) are not the best of you.

As the woman's right to decide about her marriage is recognized, so also her right to seek an
end for an unsuccessful marriage is recognized. To provide for the stability of the family,
however, and in order to protect it from hasty decisions under temporary emotional stress,
certain steps and waiting periods should be observed by men and women seeking divorce.
Considering the relatively more emotional nature of women, a good reason for asking for
divorce should be brought before the judge. Like the man, however, the woman can divorce
her husband with out resorting to the court, if the nuptial contract allows that.

More specifically, some aspects of Islamic Law concerning marriage and divorce are
interesting and are worthy of separate treatment.

When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still
taught to seek a gracious end for it.

The Qur'an states about such cases:

    When you divorce women, and they reach their prescribed term, then retain them in
    kindness and retain them not for injury so that you transgress (the limits). (Qur'an
    2:231). (See also Qur'an 2:229 and 33:49).
 

Islam considered kindness to parents next to the worship of God.

    "And we have enjoined upon man (to be good) to his parents: His mother bears him
    in weakness upon weakness..." (Qur'an 31:14) (See also Qur'an 46:15, 29:8).

Moreover, the Qur'an has a special recommendation for the good treatment of mothers:

    "Your Lord has decreed that you worship none save Him, and that you be kind to
    your parents. . ." (Qur'an 17:23).

A man came to Prophet Muhammad (P) asking:

    O Messenger of God, who among the people is the most worthy of my good
    company? The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man said then who else: The
    Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man asked, Then who else? Only then did the
    Prophet (P) say, Your father. (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).

A famous saying of The Prophet is "Paradise is at the feet of mothers." (In Al'Nisa'I, Ibn
Majah, Ahmad).

"It is the generous (in character) who is good to women, and it is the wicked who insults
them."
 

3. The Economic Aspect

Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as
late as this century), the right of independent ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman's
right to her money, real estate, or other properties is fully acknowledged. This right undergoes
no change whether she is single or married. She retains her full rights to buy, sell, mortgage or
lease any or all her properties. It is nowhere suggested in the Law that a woman is a minor
simply because she is a female. It is also noteworthy that such right applies to her properties
before marriage as well as to whatever she acquires thereafter.

With regard to the woman's right to seek employment it should be stated first that Islam
regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as the most sacred and essential one.
Neither maids nor baby-sitters can possibly take the mother's place as the educator of an
upright, complex free, and carefully-reared children. Such a noble and vital role, which
largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as "idleness".

However, there is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking employment
whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which
society needs her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially for
children), and medicine. Moreover, there is no restriction on benefiting from woman's
exceptional talent in any field. Even for the position of a judge, where there may be a tendency
to doubt the woman's fitness for the post due to her more emotional nature, we find early
Muslim scholars such as Abu-Hanifa and Al-Tabary holding there is nothing wrong with it. In
addition, Islam restored to woman the right of inheritance, after she herself was an object of
inheritance in some cultures. Her share is completely hers and no one can make any claim on
it, including her father and her husband.

    "Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred
    leave, and unto women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave,
    whether it be a little or much - a determinate share." ((Qur'an 4:7).

Her share in most cases is one-half the man's share, with no implication that she is worth half
a man! It would seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming evidence of woman's
equitable treatment in Islam, which was discussed in the preceding pages, to make such an
inference. This variation in inheritance rights is only consistent with the variations in financial
responsibilities of man and woman according to the Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully
responsible for the maintenance of his wife, his children, and in some cases of his needy
relatives, especially the females. This responsibility is neither waived nor reduced because of
his wife's wealth or because of her access to any personal income gained from work, rent,
profit, or any other legal means.

Woman, on the other hand, is far more secure financially and is far less burdened with any
claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband
and she even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such
properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the "Mahr" which she takes
from her husband at the time of marriage. If she is divorced, she may get an alimony from her
ex-husband.

An examination of the inheritance law within the overall framework of the Islamic Law
reveals not only justice but also an abundance of compassion for woman.
 

Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam o~ into the history of the Islamic civilization
will surely find a clear evidence of woman's equality with man in what we call today
"political rights".

This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also
includes woman's right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Qur'an and in Islamic
history we find examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even
with the Prophet (P) himself, (see Qur'an 58: 14 and 60: 10-12).

During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved
her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: "A woman is right and Omar
is wrong."

Although not mentioned in the Qur'an, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make
woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly
translated: "A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader." This limitation,
however, has nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to
the natural differences in the biological and psychological make-up of men and women.

According to Islam, the head of the state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the
prayers, especially on Fridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process of
decision-making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. This demanding
position, or any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, is generally inconsistent
with the physiological and psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a medical fact
that during their monthly periods and during their pregnancies, women undergo various
physiological and psychological changes. Such changes may occur during an emergency
situation, thus affecting her decision, without considering the excessive strain which is
produced. Moreover, some decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum of
emotionality - a requirement which does not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.

Even in modern times, and in the most developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the
position of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armed
services, or even a proportionate number of women representatives in parliaments, or similar
bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to any
constitutional limitation on woman's right to be in such a position as a head of state or as a
member of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of the
natural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference which does not
imply any "supremacy" of one over the other. The difference implies rather the
"complementary" roles of both the sexes in life.
 
 

The first part of this paper deals briefly with the position of various religions and cultures on
the issue under investigation. Part of this exposition extends to cover the general trend as late
as the nineteenth century, nearly 1300 years after the Qur'an set forth the Islamic teachings.

In the second part of the paper, the status of women in Islam is briefly discussed. Emphasis in
this part is placed on the original and authentic sources of Islam. This represents the standard
according to which degree of adherence of Muslims can be judged. It is also a fact that during
the downward cycle of Islamic Civilization, such teachings were not strictly adhered to by
many people who profess to be Muslims.

Such deviations were unfairly exaggerated by some writers, and the worst of this, were
superficially taken to represent the teachings of "Islam" to the Western reader without taking
the trouble to make any original and unbiased study of the authentic sources of these teachings.

Even with such deviations three facts are worth mentioning:

1. The history of Muslims is rich with women of great achievements in all walks of life from
as early as the seventh century (B.C.)

2. It is impossible for anyone to justify any mistreatment of woman by any decree of rule
embodied in the Islamic Law, nor could anyone dare to cancel, reduce, or distort the clear-cut
legal rights of women given in Islamic Law.

3. Throughout history, the reputation, chastity and maternal role of Muslim women were
objects of admiration by impartial observers.

It is also worthwhile to state that the status which women reached during the present era was
not achieved due to the kindness of men or due to natural progress. It was rather achieved
through a long struggle and sacrifice on woman's part and only when society needed her
contribution and work, more especial!; during the two world wars, and due to the escalation
of technological change.

In the case of Islam such compassionate and dignified status was decreed, not because it
reflects the environment of the seventh century, nor under the threat or pressure of women and
their organizations, but rather because of its intrinsic truthfulness.

If this indicates anything, it would demonstrate the divine origin of the Qur'an and the
truthfulness of the message of Islam, which, unlike human philosophies and ideologies, was
far from proceeding from its human environment, a message which established such humane
principles as neither grew obsolete during the course of time and after these many centuries,
nor can become obsolete in the future. After all, this is the message of the All-Wise and
all-knowing God whose wisdom and knowledge are far beyond the ultimate in human thought
and progress.
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Holy, Qur'an: Translation of verses is heavily based on A. Yusuf Ali's translation, The
Glorious Qur'an, text translation, and Commentary, The American Trust Publication,
Plainfield, IN 46168, 1979.

Abd Al-Ati, Hammudah, Islam in Focus, The American Trust Publications, Plainfield, IN
46168, 1977.

Allen, E. A., History of Civilization, General Publishing House, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1889, Vol.
3.

Al Siba'i, Mustafa, Al-Alar'ah Baynal Fiqh Walqanoon (in Arabic), 2nd. ea., Al-Maktabah
Al-Arabiah, Halab, Syria, 1966.

El-Khouli, Al-Bahiy, "Min Usus Kadiat Al-Mara'ah" (in Arabic), A 1- Waay A l-lslami,
Ministry of Walcf, Kuwait, Vol.3 (No. 27), June 9, 1967, p.17.

Encyclopedia Americana (International Edition), American Corp., N.Y., 1969, Vol.29.

Encyclopedia Biblica (Rev.T.K.Cheynene and J.S.Black, editors), The Macmillan Co.,
London, England, 1902, Vol.3.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, (11 th ed.), University Press Cambridge, England, 191 1,
Vol.28.

Encyclopedia Britannica, The Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, III., 1968, Vol.23.

Hadeeth. Most of the quoted Hadeeth were translated by the writer. They are quoted in
various Arabic sources. Some of them, however, were translated directly from the original
sources. Among the sources checked are Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Dar AlMa'aref, Cairo,
U.A.R., 1950, and 1955, Vol.4 and 3,SunanIbnMajah, Dar Ihya'a Al-Kutub al-Arabiah, Cairo,
U.A.R., 1952, Vol.l, Sunan al-Tirimidhi, Vol.3.

Mace, David and Vera, Marriage: East and West, Dolphin Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc.,
N.Y., 1960.